Homer’s The Odyssey presents an unconventional hero in Odysseus, whose egotistical nature, moral failings, and reliance on divine intervention exemplify the ancient Greek ideal of heroism but fail to align with the moral and self-reliant qualities valued in contemporary Western definitions of a hero. This research paper will dissect the character of Odysseus in relation to his title as a hero, a reputation the text establishes through character interactions and actions, and why this identity of a hero would fail to be unquestionably accepted by twenty-first-century standards. The window for what contemporary times allow for a hero to be is smaller. The immoral temptations Odysseus succumbs to and knowingly endangers his close companions represent an individual with a lack of moral compass; a true hero by modern standards would possess the self-restraint and compassion to remain loyal in their relationships. The world-view Odysseus exists in is viewed as alien to the modern era due to the dishonorable attributes glorified by Greek standards. Outside of Odysseus’ character flaws, his journey home following the Trojan War displays a substantial amount of outside influence on his successful return to his family. With the assistance of the Greek God Athena, Odysseus manages to overcome the misfortunes he is cursed with. However, removing the roles the Greek gods play in Odysseus’ triumph, the direction of his trajectory would fail to prosper, and his favorable outcomes with each barrier would cease to occur. The idea of an unprincipled individual being universally accepted as a hero encouraged me to debate Odysseus’ heroism through a contemporary lens and research what stands as the true measure of a hero by that basis. I will provide a deep dive into the basis for heroism in Greek mythology and contrast the ancient Greek definition to the current Western society’s definition by including Captain America, a well-known hero in American media, to support my definition of a hero in modern times.

     Greek mythology often presents heroes as beings with extraordinary abilities and a level of divinity, whether that be by association with divine gods or possession of divinity themselves; the idea of a hero for the Greeks lay more in the superhuman capabilities of the character, rather than moral intentions or actions. In Rebecca Georgiades article “To Hell and Back: The Function of the Ancient Greek Hero’s Katabasis,” she claims “the underworld journey of the ancient Greek hero reflected their mortal and immortal characteristics, revealing that the heroes shared a unique status as mediatory beings between gods and men” (Georgiades 5). This unique mediatory role between mortality and divinity underscores why Odysseus was revered as a hero in Greek mythology, but such traits do not prioritize the moral and self-reliant characteristics that contemporary society values in its heroes. Calling Greek heroes mortals would not be entirely correct; their heroism was due partially to their transcendence between mortality and immortality, as Georgiades states. According to Georgiades, Greek heroes were celebrated for their ability to transcend the boundaries of mortality, exhibiting qualities that moved between human and divine realms. This duality, while central to their heroism in ancient Greek mythology, places less emphasis on personal morality, which is crucial in modern definitions of heroism. Georgiades stressed the importance of the superhuman abilities of the Greek hero. A hero’s testament to being closer to godlike characteristics than mortal life, despite existing as a mortal in the most technical sense, becomes the basis of what it means to be considered a true representation of a hero in Greek mythology. The Greek mythology standard for a hero was not limited to Odysseus, as other notable Greek heroes can be viewed as possessing superhuman capabilities that only emphasize their popularity and upholding of the ideal Greek heroic model. To highlight two of the many, let us look at Achilles and Heracles: Achilles’, a demigod with near-invincibility and Heracles’ super-strength and ability to perform impossible tasks further illustrate how Greek heroism was defined by extraordinary feats rather than moral virtue, reinforcing a major contrast with contemporary ideals of heroism. Greek heroes must border the line between mortality and divinity, a line contemporary heroes do not require in order to establish their heroism.

     Let us examine the criteria for a hero in Greek mythology. In Ruth Martin Curry’s “Achilles and the Astronaut: What Heroism Humanities Can Teach Heroism Science,” she recognizes “when talking about pre-modern heroes, we almost always back construct the ‘hero’ as having earned his heroic status by acting heroically” (Curry 11). Would the constant assistance from the gods defend Odysseus’ title as a hero? Odysseus survives many ordeals that kill his men, mainly due to divine intervention from the gods and goddesses. Many times throughout Odysseus’ story, the gods step in to shield him from danger and are the difference between life and death for Odysseus. Without their protection, Odysseus would fail to outlast his men, who lacked protection from higher beings. Although cunning and resilient, Odysseus’ survival fails to be rooted in these defining characteristics. His wit and determination are only small parts played in his triumphant ending, with the true reasoning behind his success lying in the assistance of the divine.

     While ancient Greek heroes emphasize divinity and god-like qualities in a heroic individual, contemporary Western society values morality, nobility, selflessness, and courage in their heroes. If we take a look at one popular American hero in Western society in particular, we can see how goodness is weighted in relation to a character’s reputation as a hero. Mike S. Dubose’s “Holding Out for a Hero: Reaganism, Comic Book Vigilantes, and Captain America,” analyzes the heroism of Captain America in Stan Lee’s comic book stories. Captain America calls into question the morality of the American Dream under the Reagan administration, wondering if the concept of the dream truly works in favor for the American people. Captain America’s superhuman abilities came to be thanks to an accidental super serum. The hero wonders the direction World War II could have taken had the serum not been misplaced and instead been used on the rest of his army to defeat the war without the countless lives lost due to the Government using the atomic bomb (Dubose 933). Dubose argues that Captain America’s heroism lies in his ability to transcend societal norms and follow his moral convictions, positioning himself as a force for justice rather than a tool of authority. The attention here is drawn to Captain America’s moral compass and its disconnect from the actions of the government. The government stands as the authority for its country and holds the responsibility for its well-being, however, Captain America recognizes the darkness behind their actions despite being considered to take action for the betterment of its citizens. Dubose suggests “perhaps what makes a hero…was the ability to follow morals while not necessarily working either outside the system or within it, but to transcend the system. Heroes…must be moral…” (Dubose 933). While Captain America did possess superhuman capabilities thanks to an accidental injection of a mysterious serum, the weight of his heroism lands in his morality and ability to recognize a higher purpose can be achieved through nobility and goodness. Captain America’s heightened morality further sets him apart from Odysseus, a character whose triumphs lack virtue; the stark contrast between the modern hero and the Greek hero exemplifies what level of priority goodness is placed at for each era.

     Unlike Captain America, whose heroism is rooted in his moral compass and selflessness, Odysseus’ actions—such as endangering his crew for personal gain in the villainous Cyclops Polyphemos’ cave—demonstrate a lack of concern for others, highlighting the divergence between ancient Greek and contemporary Western ideals. When we take a look at Odysseus, the definition of a hero under the Western contemporary lens of emphasizing morality and good character would not apply to Odysseus. In Kim Emmerson Pratt’s “Monster and Hero?: Rethinking Polyphemos and Odysseus in Homer’s Odyssey,” Odysseus is compared alongside the villain of his story, Cyclops Polyphemos. Emmerson sets out to prove Odysseus’ “monstrosity” (Emmerson 31) and explores the discrepancy between the justifications given when Odysseus commits selfish decisions that jeopardize the safety of others versus when Polyphemos behaves in the same manner. Now, allow us to delve further into one of the most memorable examples of Odysseus’ selfishness and negligence: Odysseus behaves immorally and selfishly, not to strangers, but to his own companions, when he visits Cyclops Polyphemos’ land and knowingly places his accompanying men in danger to stay back and indulge in food rather than fleeing for safety when given the opportunity. Odysseus instead stays behind with the food and “At first, my comrades urged me to grab some cheeses and return, then drive the lambs and kids out of their pens back to our swift ship and cross the water. But I did not agree, though if I had, things would have turned out better” (Homer 153). Odysseus himself acknowledges the selfish manner in which he behaved; had he listened to his men and run off while they had the chance, they would have been in a more favorable position instead of the subsequent danger he contributed to. This scene shows how Odysseus’ selfish decisions, while admired in ancient Greek culture for their cunning, would not meet modern expectations of heroism, which value morality and selflessness. By comparing Odysseus to Polyphemos, Emmerson raises questions about whether Odysseus’ actions make him more akin to villainous than heroic, highlighting how his behavior falls short of contemporary ideals.

     Odysseus’ behavior in The Odyssey, marked by selfishness and a lack of urgency, mirrors the monstrous actions of Polyphemos, raising questions about how his heroism is perceived under different cultural lenses. Emmerson points out Polyphemos’ behavior after consuming Odysseus’ men, explaining “the next morning Polyphemos ate two more before heading off up the mountainside to pasture his sheep, casually whistling as he went on his way…reminiscent of Odysseus’ casual attitude…” (Emmerson 38). Emmerson’s comparison of a well-regarded Greek hero like Odysseus and his enemy Polyphemos brings up validity in the perceptions of characters depending on their trajectory. There exists no doubt of Odysseus’ heroism by Greek mythological standards, despite his parallels to a villain like Polyphemos. But when analyzing his behavior through a contemporary lens, the similarity between Odysseus and a monster is difficult to ignore and take into consideration when determining his heroism. The morality of Odysseus proves undefined and nonexistent at times, along with his selflessness, and takes into question whether his character lies closer to the monster title than hero, were he to be first introduced in the twenty-first-century society. But Odysseus’ questionable heroism in contemporary times spans further than his characteristics and can be further doubted through the grand assistance he receives from divine gods on his trajectory back home. While Odysseus is celebrated as a hero in Greek mythology for his cunning and resilience, his parallels to Polyphemos’ casual cruelty and his reliance on divine intervention challenge his heroism when viewed through the moral standards of modern society.

     Athena’s constant intervention in The Odyssey highlights how Odysseus’ survival and success rely more on divine favoritism than on his own abilities, challenging his status as a self-reliant hero. Their relationship can best be described as a guardian angel, where Athena protects Odysseus out of what can be inferred as romantic interest and genuine admiration (Discovery Education 10:19 – 10:44). Athena is the goddess of wisdom and intellect, and as stated by Zimmerman in “The Odyssey | Video,” “Odysseus is the most brilliant of all mortals” (Discovery Education 10:19 – 10:44). Because of this adoration and favoritism, the goddess makes her best attempts to keep her chosen mortal safe. Athena taking a liking to Odysseus and her attraction to him motivates her desire to maintain his safety and seek help from the accompanying gods to assist her in ensuring Odysseus arrives home safely. In book five, Odysseus finds himself in a dangerous situation at sea, being met with waves and strong winds. Athena’s intrusion saves him when she:

blocked off the pathways of every wind but one and ordered all of them to stop and check their force, then roused the swift North Wind and broke the waves in front, so that divinely born Odysseus might yet meet the people of Phaecia, men who love the oar, avoiding death and fate (Homer 30).

Athena coming to Odysseus’ rescue does not stand as a singular event, but repeats consistently throughout his journey. In book twenty-two, when Odysseus is battled by the suitors (begging for Odysseus’ wife Penelope’s hand in marriage), throwing spears his way, Athena protects him once again. The suitors refused to limit the amount of spears used to attack Odysseus and “though there were a lot, Athena made them miss” (Homer 149). Being a mere mortal, Athena plays a large hand in Odysseus’ safety, utilizing her mystic powers to shield Odysseus when placed in hazardous conditions. Athena spends the poem coming to Odysseus’ rescue and her wise abilities are merely used for the preservation of his safety. While Athena’s aid underscores the Greek ideal of divine support for heroes, it also reveals that Odysseus’ achievements are inseparable from the gods’ intervention, making his heroism incompatible with contemporary ideals of independence and self-reliance.

     An argument can be made for Odysseus’ immorality to be considered heroic. H. Williams’ “Polymetic Heroism in the Wanderings of Odysseus, Odyssey 9-12 (The Apologue)” focuses on Odysseus’ deceit and trickery in particular, arguing it to be vital for his title of a hero. Williams goes as far as to claim that, “In tandem with the success which frequently accompanies acts of trickery, a corresponding failure will also be viewed in their absence” (Williams 1). William stresses Odysseus’ deceitful nature to be necessary for his triumphant journey back home. Had Odysseus not possessed the courage to outsmart his enemies through immoral and often cruel actions, his heroism would not have been as cemented as it is now. I contest this, as Odysseus’ triumph could have existed without his moral failings, and instead, I argue that Odysseus’ successful journey home was largely supported by divine intervention and not due to his trickeries. Odysseus could have done without the selflessness, deceit, and immorality, but would not have made it home alive, nor would he have the title of hero, had Athena’s powers and pleas to her fellow gods assisted him. When we bring it back to the contemporary period, Odysseus’ trickery and deceit encourage him to fall closer to the category of trickster or villain than the hero. By modern standards, ethics are emphasized when determining a hero, while Greek standards provide more leniency on the matter. While Odysseus’ cunning is showcased as an admirable heroic attribute in Greek mythology, his consistent moral failures through selfishness and parallels to the monster Cyclops encourage him to lose his heroic title in a contemporary context. Above all, the contemporary era prefers their hero to be a “good guy,” a requirement the Greek do not prioritize when establishing their heroes.

     Odysseus’ heroism would fall short in modern-day twenty-first-century Western day culture. The argument is not against his historical heroism, instead, I analyze Odysseus in the context of our current time period and discuss why he would not be considered a hero in this culture, as opposed to arguing he is not considered a hero regardless of the time period. Odysseus’ heroism proves conditional depending on the culture determining the title, as opposing societies and environments weigh defining characteristics uniquely. The criteria for Odysseus to be considered a hero in Greek mythology is far more lenient than the requirements for contemporary times. Greek mythology relies on superhuman capabilities and transcending mortality, characteristics modern characters repeatedly display as well. However, the significance in these traits is placed less on a pedestal in contemporary society than in Greek mythology. Greek standards fail to abide by the simple black and white structure of “good guy” or “bad guy”; the lines stand blurred, and being considered unethical does not eliminate you from hero conversations. Contemporary society holds more value in a strong moral compass, goodness, and courage as opposed to extraordinary ability, a value Odysseus would fail to display as his defining trait. Reanalyzing Odysseus through a contemporary lens, his failure to fulfill the conventions of a typical hero presents the strict nature of contemporary audiences, who prefer their heroes to possess unattainable displays of moral perfection instead of a more organic individual closer to the average, flawed mortal being.

Works Cited

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Dubose, Mike S. “Holding Out for a Hero: Reaganism, Comic Book Vigilantes, and Captain America.” Journal of Popular Culture, vol. 40, no. 6, Dec. 2007, pp. 915–35. EBSCOhost, https://doi-org.hmlproxy.lib.csufresno.edu/10.1111/j.1540-5931.2007.00478.x.

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Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada, 2024.

Pratt, Kim Emmerson. “Monster and Hero?: Rethinking Polyphemos and Odysseus in Homer’s Odyssey.” 2023. Limina, vol. 28, no. 2, University of Western Australia School of Humanities, 2023, pp. 31–42, https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/informit.T2024032700000490162799274.

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Williams, H. “Polymetic Heroism in the Wanderings of Odysseus, Odyssey 9-12 (The Apologue).” Akroterion, vol. 63, 2018, pp. 1+. Gale Academic OneFile, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A601551079/AONE?u=csufresno&sid=bookmark-AONE&xid=c4536247.

Author Bio: Wendy Abrego-Miranda is a senior at Fresno State, graduating this May with her B.A. in English Literature. Her writing revolves around promoting women’s issues and interests and challenging patriarchal structures, as well as themes of individualism, identity, existentialism, and moral questioning. In her free time, she enjoys a warm cup of tea, visits to the cinema, shopping, completing puzzles, practicing musical instruments, long walks, and, of course, reading. She plans to pursue postgraduate studies where she can deepen her knowledge of literature and prepare for a career in academia.

Recollections: Of Being is a literary column brought to you by The Collegian, founded and organized by Aura Peredia. We publish writing and art, either political or personal, to create a bridge between varying valley voices.

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